The purpose of Volume IV is to discuss issues of compatibility and conversion between the BRL-CAD geometry file format and the formats of various other computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), and computer-aided engineering (CAE) packages. Conversion is increasingly important for BRL-CAD users who must interact with a growing number of Government and commercial organizations involved in the research, development,testing, and evaluation of today’s combat systems.

Since 1979, the U.S. Army Research Laboratory* has been developing and distributing the Ballistic Research Laboratory – Computer-Aided Design (BRL-CAD) three-dimensional (3-D) solid modeling package to support combat vehicle vulnerability studies and various other military and industrial applications. The software, which is now in its third generation, includes a large collection of tools and utilities, including an interactive geometry editor, raytracing and generic framebuffer libraries, network-distributed image-processing/signal-processing capabilities, and an embedded scripting language.

In support of the package, a multivolume tutorial series is being written to assist users with the many features and functionality of BRL-CAD. Three volumes have been published thus far. Volume I provides an overview of the package contents and installation (Butler and Edwards,2002). Volume II addresses the basic functionality of the package’s Multi-Device Geometry Editor (MGED) and offers a comprehensive list of the user commands available (Butler et al.,2001). Volume III discusses the modeling process as well as principles and techniques to help maximize BRL-CAD’s effectiveness (Butler et al., 2003). All of these documents are available for download at <http://ftp.arl.army.mil/brlcad/> (U.S. Army Research Laboratory, 2003).

List of Content

1. Introduction 1

1.1 Background, Purpose, and Scope

1.2 The Need for Conversion

2. Pertinent Characteristics of the BRL-CAD Format 4

2.1 CSG vs. BREP

2.2 Prerelease 6.0 Database vs. Current Format

2.3 Converters Currently Available in BRL-CAD

3. Converting From/to ASCII 8

3.1 Converting From ASCII

3.2 Converting to ASCII

4. Converting to BRL-CAD 10

4.1 General Information About Converting to BRL-CAD

4.2 Converting From AutoCAD DXF Format

4.3 Converting From Elysium Neutral Facetted Format

4.4 Converting From EUCLID Format

4.5 Converting From FASTGEN Format

4.5.1 FASTGEN4

4.5.2 Preprocessed FASTGEN Version 3/PATCH

4.6 Converting From IGES Format

4.7 Converting From Jack

4.8 Converting From NASTRAN Format

4.9 Converting From Pro/E Format

4.10 Converting From STL Format

4.11 Converting From TANKILL Format

4.12 Converting From Unigraphics Format

4.13 Converting From Viewpoint Datalabs Format

5. Converting From BRL-CAD 25

5.1 General Information About Converting From BRL-CAD

5.2 Converting to ACAD Format

5.3 Converting to AutoCAD DXF Format

5.4 Converting to EUCLID Format

5.5 Converting to IGES Format

5.6 Converting to Jack

5.7 Converting to STL Format

5.8 Converting to TANKILL Format

5.9 Converting to VRML Format

5.10 Converting to Wavefront Format

5.11 Converting to X3D Format

6. Building a New Converter 32

6.1 General Information About Building a New Converter

6.2 Converting From BRL-CAD

6.3 Converting to BRL-CA

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The training material consists of the following documents:

Program Management Guide – This document contains detailed information on how to use the Handbook material.

Instructor’s Guide – This document contains a lesson plan for instructor use, including notation of key points for inclusion of facility/site-specific information. Instructor’s notes are added parenthetically through the text in Italic.

Student’s Guide – This document contains student handout material and also should be augmented by facility/site-specific information.

As part of DOE’s efforts to consolidate guidance documents, this handbook now contains:

Appendix A, previously DOE-HDBK-1143-2001 Radiological Control Training for Supervisors,

Appendix B, previously DOE-HDBK-1106-97 Radiological Contamination Control for Laboratory Research, and

Appendix C, previously DOE-HDBK-1109-97 Radiological Safety Training for Radiation Producing (X-Ray) Devices.

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The book is aimed at third- to fourth-year engineering students and presupposes a certain level of engineering background. However, the courses for which this book was written are composed of engineering students from varied backgrounds to include mechanical, aeronautical, electrical, and astronautical engineering. Thus, certain topics that would be a review for mechanical engineering students may be an introduction to electrical engineers, and vice versa. Furthermore, because the book is aimed at students, it sometimes has been necessary to give only outline or simplified explanations. In such cases, numerous references have been made to sources of other information.

Chapter 1-Introduction and Overview

Beginnings

Growth and Refinement

Modern Development

Overview

Chapter 2 -Thermodynamics of Prime Movers

Introduction

Two- and Four-Stroke Engines

Indicator Diagrams and Internal Combustion Engine

Performance Parameters

Otto and Diesel Cycle Analyses

• The Ideal Air Standard Otto Cycle
• The Ideal Air Standard Diesel Cycle
• Efficiencies of Real Engines

Ignition and Combustion in Spark Ignition and Diesel Engines

Sources of Emissions

• Simple Combustion Equilibrium
• Unburned Hydrocarbons (HC) and Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) in Spark Ignition Engines
• Unburned Hydrocarbons (HC), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx),and Particulates in Compression Ignition Engines

Fuel and Additive Requirements

• Abnormal Combustion in Spark Ignition Engines
• Gasoline and Diesel Additives

Gas Exchange Processes

• Valve Flow and Volumetric Efficiency
• Valve Timing
• Valve Operating Systems
• Dynamic Behavior of Valve Gear

Engine Configuration

• Choosing the Number of Cylinders
• Balancing of the Primary and Secondary Forces and Moments

Fuel Cells

• Solid Polymer Fuel Cells (SPFC)
• Solid Polymer Fuel Cell (SPFC) Efficiency
• Activation Losses
• Fuel Crossover and Internal Currents
• Ohmic Losses
• Mass Transfer Losses
• Overall Response

Sources of Hydrogen for Solid Polymer Fuel Cells (SPFC)

• Steam Reforming (SR)
• Partial Oxidation (POX) Reforming
• Autothermal Reforming (AR)
• Carbon Monoxide Clean-Up and Solid Polymer Fuel Cell (SPFC) Operation on Reformed Fuel
• Hydrogen Storage

Hydrogen Fuel Cell Systems

Concluding Remarks

Chapter 3-Spark Ignition Engines

Introduction

Spark Ignition and Ignition Timing

• Ignition System Overview
• The Ignition Process
• Ignition Timing Selection and Control

Mixture Preparation

Combustion System Design

• Port Injection Combustion Systems
• Direct Injection Spark lgnition (DISI) Combustion Systems

Emissions Control

• Development of the Three-Way Catalyst
• Durability
• Catalyst Light-Off
• Lean-Bum NOx-Reducing Catalysts, “DENOx”

Power Boosting

• Variable Valve Timing and Induction Tuning
• Supercharging

Engine Management Systems

• Introduction
• Sensor Types
• Crankshaft SpeedPosition and Camshaft Position
• Throttle Position
• Air Flow Rate
• Inlet Manifold Absolute Pressure
• Air Temperature and Coolant Temperature
• Air-Fuel Ratio
• Knock Detector

Engine Management System Functions

• Ignition Timing
• Air-Fuel Ratio Control
• Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) Control
• Additional Functions
• Concluding Remarks on Engine Management Systems

Conclusions

Questions

Chapter 4-Diesel Engines

Introduction

Direct and Indirect Injection Combustion Chambers

Fuel Injection Equipment

• Pump-Line-Injector (PLI) Systems
• Electronic Unit Injectors (EUI)
• Common Rail (CR) Fuel Injection Systems

Diesel Engine Emissions and Their Control

• Diesel Engine Emissions
• Diesel Engine Emissions Control
• Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)
• Particulate Traps

Turbocharging

• Introduction
• Turbocharger Performance
• Turbocharged Engine Performance

Diesel Engine Management Systems

Concluding Remarks

Examples

Problems

Chapter 5-Ancillaries

Introduction

Lubrication System

Bearings

• Anti-Friction Bearings
• Guide Bearings
• Thrust Bearings
• Journal Bearings

Engine Lubricants

Lubrication of Journal Bearings

Vehicle Cooling Systems

• Coolant

Drive Belts

• Flat Belt Drives
• V-Belts

Air Conditioning Systems

• Overview
• Thermodynamic Performance and Operation
• Coefficient of Performance (COP):
• Air Conditioning System Performance

Generators, Motors, and Alternators

• Fundamentals
• Practical Alternators
• Practical Starter Motors

Conclusions

Chapter 6-Transmissions and Driveline

Introduction

Friction Clutches

• Torque Capability of an Axial Clutch
• Uniform Pressure: p = pa
• Uniform Wear

Gear Theory

• Straight-Tooth Spur Gears
• Helical Spur Gears
• Straight-Tooth Bevel Gears
• Spiral Bevel Gears
• Hypoid Gears

Manual Transmissions

• Transmission Power Flows
• First Gear
• Second Gear
• Third Gear
• Fourth Gear
• Reverse
• Synchronizer Operation

Automatic Transmissions

• Fluid Couplings and Torque Converters
• Planetary Gears
• Planetary Gear-Set Torque Converter
• Simpson Drive
  • Power Flow in First Gear
  • Power Flow in Second Gear
  • Power Flow in Third Gear
  • Power Flow in Reverse
  • Hydraulic Control System

Continuously Variable Transmissions (CVT)

• Introduction
• Van Doorne Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT)
• Torotrak Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT)

Driveshafts

• Hooke’s Joints
• Shaft Whirl

Differentials

Four-wheel Drive (FWD) and All-Wheel Drive (AWD)

• Part-Time Four-wheel Drive (4WD)
• On-Demand Four-wheel Drive (4WD)
• Full-Time Four-wheel Drive (4WD)
• All-Wheel Drive (AWD)

Case Study: The Chrysler 42LE Automatic Transaxle

• Configuration
• Chain Transfer Drive
• Control System
• Problems

Chapter 7-Steering Systems and Steering Dynamics

Introduction

Steering Mechanisms

• Worm Systems
• Worm and Sector
• Worm and Roller
• Recirculating Ball
• Rack and Pinion Steering
• Power Steering

Steering Dynamics

• Low-Speed Turning
• High-speed Turning
• Effects of Tractive Forces

Wheel Alignment

• Camber
• Steering Axis Inclination (SAI)
• Toe
• Caster
• Wheel Alignment

Steering Geometry Errors

• Front-Wheel-Drive Influences
• Driveline Torque
• Loss of Cornering Stiffness Due to Tractive Forces
• Increase in Aligning Torque Due to Tractive Forces

Four-wheel Steering

• Low-Speed Turns
• High-speed Turns
• Implementation of Four-wheel Steering

Vehicle Rollover

• Quasi-Static Model
• Quasi-Static Rollover with Suspension
• Roll Model

Problems

Chapter &-Suspensions

Introduction

Perception of Ride

Basic Vibrational Analysis

• Single-Degree-of-Freedom Model (Quarter Car Model)
• Two-Degrees-of-Freedom Model (Quarter Car Model)
• Two-Degrees-of-Freedom Model (Half Car Model)

Suspension System Components

Springs

• Leaf Springs
• Torsion Bars
• Coil Springs
• Pneumatic (Air) Springs

Dampers (Shock Absorbers)

Suspension Types

• Solid Axle Suspensions
• Hotchkiss Suspensions
• Four-Link Suspensions
• de Dion Suspensions

Independent Suspensions

• Short-Long Arm Suspensions (SLA)
• MacPherson Struts
• Trailing Arm Suspensions
• Multi-Link Suspensions
• Swing Arm Suspensions

Roll Center Analysis

• Wishbone Suspension Roll Center Calculation
• MacPherson Strut Suspension Roll Center Calculation
• Hotchkiss Suspension Roll Center Calculation
• Vehicle Motion About the Roll Axis
• Active Suspensions
• Conclusions

Chapter 9-Brakes and Tires

Introduction

Braking Dynamics

Hydraulic Principles

Brake System Components

• Master Cylinder
• Power Assistance
• Combination Valve
• Proportioning Valve
• Pressure Differential Switch
• Metering Valve

Drum Brakes

Analysis of Drum Brakes

Example

Disc Brakes

• Disc Brake Components
• Brake Disc
• Brakepads
• Caliper
• Disc Brake Analysis
• Heat Dissipation from Disc Brakes

Antilock Brake Systems (ABS) 4

Tires

• Tire Construction
• Tire Designations
• Tire Force Generation

Summary

Problems

Chapter 10-Vehicle Aerodynamics

Introduction

Essential Aerodynamics

• Introduction Definitions and Sources of Drag
• Experimental Techniques

Automobile Aerodynamics

• The Significance of Aerodynamic Drag
• Factors Influencing Aerodynamic Drag

Truck and Bus Aerodynamics

• The Significance of Aerodynamic Drag
• Factors Influencing Aerodynamic Drag

Aerodynamics of Open Vehicles

Numerical Prediction of Aerodynamic Performance

Conclusions

Examples

Discussion Points

Chapter ll-Transmission Matching and Vehicle Performance

Introduction

Transmission Matching

• Selecting the Engine Size and Final Drive Ratio for Maximum Speed
• Use of Overdrive Ratios to Improve Fuel Economy
• Use of Continuously Variable Transmissions (CVT)
• to Improve Performance
• Gearbox Span

Computer Modeling

• Introduction
• ADVISOR (ADvanced VehIcle SimulatOR)
• Conclusions

Chapter 12-Alternative Vehicles and Case Studies

Electric Vehicles

• Introduction
• Battery Types
• Lead-Acid Batteries
• Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) Batteries
• Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) Batteries
• Lithium Ion (Li-Ion)/Lithium Polymer Batteries
• Types of Electric Vehicles
• Conclusions About Electric Vehicles

Hybrid Electric Vehicles

• Introduction
• Dual Hybrid Systems

Case Studies

• Introduction
• The Vauxhall 14-40
• Introduction
• Specifications
• Engine Design and Performance
• Engine Performance
• Vehicle Design and Performance
• Conclusions
• The Toyota Prius
• Modeling the Dual Cconfiguration

Conclusions

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• Disconnecting Means
• Across the Line Starting
• Reduced Voltage Starting

2) Motor Protection

• Overcurrent Protection
• Overload Protection
• Other Protection (voltage, phase, etc)
• Environment

3) Stopping the Motor

• Coasting
• Electrical Braking
• Mechanical Braking

4) Motor Operational Control

• Speed Control
• Reversing
• Jogging

Sequence Control

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•  1.0 Introduction

-Overview of Subject

•  1.1 The Lorentz Law in Free Space

•  1.2 Charge and Current Densities

•  1.3 Gauss’ Integral Law of Electric Field Intensity

-Singular Charge Distributions

-Gauss’ Continuity Condition

•  1.4 Ampère’s Integral Law

-Singular Current Distributions

-Ampère’s Continuity Conditions

•  1.5 Charge Conservation in Integral Form

-Charge Conservation Continuity Condition

•  1.6 Faraday’s Integral Law

-Electric Field Intensity Having No Circulation

-Electric Field Intensity With Circulation

-Faraday’s Continuity Condition

•  1.7 Gauss’ Integral Law of Magnetic Flux

-Magnetic Flux Continuity Condition

Maxwell’s Differential Laws In Free Space

•  2.0 Introduction

•  2.1 The Divergence Operator

•  2.2 Gauss’ Integral Theorem

•  2.3 Gauss’ Law, Magnetic Flux Continuity, and ChargeConservation

•  2.4 The Curl Operator

•  2.5 Stokes’ Integral Theorem

•  2.6 Differential Laws of Ampère and Faraday

•  2.7 Visualization of Fields and the Divergence and Curl

•  2.8 Summary of Maxwell’s Differential Laws and Integral Theorems

Introduction To Electroquasistatics and Magnetoquasistatics

•  3.0 Introduction

•  3.1 Temporal Evolution of World Governed by Laws ofMaxwell, Lorentz, and Newton

•  3.2 Quasistatic Laws

•  3.3 Conditions for Fields to be Quasistatic

•  3.4 Quasistatic Systems1

•  3.5 Overview of Applications

•  3.6 Summary

Electroquasistatic Fields: The Superposition Integral Point of View

•  4.0 Introduction

•  4.1 Irrotational Field Represented by Scalar Potential: TheGradient Operator and Gradient Integral Theorem

•  4.2 Poisson’s Equation

•  4.3 Superposition Principle

•  4.4 Fields Associated with Charge Singularities

•  4.5 Solution of Poisson’s Equation for Specified ChargeDistributions

•  4.6 Electroquasistatic Fields in the Presence of PerfectConductors

•  4.7 Method of Images

•  4.8 Charge Simulation Approach to Boundary Value Problems

•  4.9 Summary

Electroquasistatic Fields from the Boundary Value Point of View

•  5.1 Particular and Homogeneous Solutions to Poisson’sand Laplace’s Equations

•  5.2 Uniqueness of Solutions to Poisson’s Equation

•  5.3 Continuity Conditions

•  5.4 Solutions to Laplace’s Equation in CartesianCoordinates

•  5.5 Modal Expansion to Satisfy Boundary Conditions

•  5.6 Solutions to Poisson’s Equation with BoundaryConditions

•  5.7 Solutions to Laplace’s Equation in Polar Coordinates

•  5.8 Examples in Polar Coordinates

•  5.9 Three Solutions to Laplace’s Equation inSpherical Coordinates

•  5.10 Three-Dimensional Solutions to Laplace’s Equation

Polarization

•  6.1 Polarization Density

•  6.2 Laws and Continuity Conditions with Polarization

•  6.3 Permanent Polarization

•  6.4 Constitutive Laws of Polarization

•  6.5 Fields in the Presence of Electrically LinearDielectrics

•  6.6 Piece-Wise Uniform Electrically Linear Dielectrics

•  6.7 Smoothly Inhomogeneous Electrically LinearDielectrics

Conduction and Electroquasistatic Charge Relaxation

•  7.1 Conduction Constitutive Laws

•  7.2 Steady Ohmic Conduction

•  7.3 Distributed Current Sources and Associated Fields

•  7.4 Superposition and Uniqueness of Steady Conduction Solutions

•  7.5 Steady Currents in Piece-Wise Uniform Conductors

•  7.6 Conduction Analogs

•  7.7 Charge Relaxation in Uniform Conductors

•  7.8 Electroquasistatic Conduction Laws forInhomogeneous Materials

•  7.9 Charge Relaxation in Uniform and Piece-Wise UniformSystems

Magnetoquasistatic Fields: Superposition Integral and Boundary Value Points of View

•  8.1 The Vector Potential and the Vector Poisson Equation

•  8.2 The Biot-Savart Superposition Integral

•  8.3 The Scalar Magnetic Potential

•  8.4 Magnetoquasistatic Fields in the Presence of PerfectConductors

•  8.5 Piece-Wise Magnetic Fields

•  8.6 Vector Potential and the Boundary Value Point ofView

Magnetization

•  9.1 Magnetization Density

•  9.2 Laws and Continuity Conditions with Magnetization

•  9.3 Permanent Magnetization

•  9.4 Magnetization Constitutive Laws

•  9.5 Fields In The Presence Of Magnetically Linear Insulating Materials

•  9.6 Fields in Piece-Wise Uniform Magnetically Linear Materials

•  9.7 Magnetic Circuits

Magnetoquasistatic Relaxation and Diffusion

•  10.1 Magnetoquasistatic Electric Fields in Systems of PerfectConductors

•  10.2 Nature of Fields Induced in Finite Conductors

•  10.3 Diffusion of Axial Magnetic FIelds Through ThinConductors

•  10.4 Diffusion of Transverse Magnetic FieldsThrough Thin Conductors

•  10.5 Magnetic Diffusion Laws

•  10.6 Magnetic Diffusion Transient Response

•  10.7 Skin Effect

Energy, Power Flow, and Forces

•  11.1 Integral and Differential Conservation Statements

•  11.2 Poynting’s Theorem

•  11.3 Ohmic Conductors With Linear Polarization andMagnetization

•  11.4 Energy Storage

•  11.5 Electromagnetic Dissipation

•  11.6 Electrical Forces on Macroscopic Media

•  11.7 Macroscopic Magnetic Forces

•  11.8 Forces on Microscopic Electric and Magnetic Dipoles

•  11.9 Macroscopic Force Densities

Electrodynamic Fields: The Superposition Integral Point of View

•  12.1 Electrodynamic Fields and Potentials

•  12.2 Electrodynamic Fields of Source Singularities

•  12.3 Superposition Integral for Electrodynamic Fields

•  12.4 Antenna Radiation Fields in the Sinusoidal Steady State

•  12.5 Complex Poynting’s Theorem and Radiation Resistance

•  12.6 Periodic Sheet-Source Fields: Uniform and Nonuniform PlaneWaves

•  12.7 Electrodynamic Fields in the Presence of PerfectConductors

Electrodynamic Fields: The Boundary Value Point of View

•  13.1 Introduction to TEM Waves

•  13.2 Two-Dimensional Modes Between Parallel Plates

•  13.3 TE and TM Standing Waves Between Parallel Plates

•  13.4 Rectangular Waveguide Modes

•  13.5 Dielectric Waveguides: Optical Fibers

One-Dimensional Wave Dynamics

•  14.1 Distributed Parameter Equivalents and Models

•  14.2 Transverse Electromagnetic Waves

•  14.3 Transients on Infinite Transmission Lines

•  14.4 Transients on Bounded Transmission Lines

•  14.5 Transmission Lines in the Sinusoidal Steady State

•  14.6 Reflection Coefficient Representation of Transmission Lines

•  14.7 Distributed Parameter Equivalents and Models with Dissipation

•  14.8 Uniform and TEM Waves in Ohmic Conductors (R = 0)

•  14.9 Quasi-One-Dimensional Models (G = 0)

Overview of Electromagnetic Fields

•  15.1 Source and Material Configurations

•  15.2 Macroscopic Media

•  15.3 Characteristic Times, Physical Processes, andApproximations

•  15.4 Energy, Power, and Force

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Many books have been published, one specializing in the areas known, mechatronics includes: mechanical engineering, control and electronic systems. The book is divided into three sections. The first section is divided into five chapters, deals with the control engineering and artificial intelligence. The second section deals with robotics and vision with six chapters, and the third section focuses on other applications and theory with two chapters.

Part 1 Automatic Control and Artificial Intelligence

Integrated Control of Vehicle System Dynamics: Theory and Experiment

Integrating Neural Signal and Embedded System for Controlling Small Motor

Artificial Intelligent Based Friction Modelling and Compensation in Motion Control System

Mechatronic Systems for Kinetic Energy Recovery at the Braking of Motor Vehicles

Integrated Mechatronic Design for Servo Mechanical Systems

Part 2 Robotics and Vision

On the Design of Underactuated Finger Mechanisms for Robotic Hands

Robotic Grasping and Fine Manipulation Using Soft Fingertip

Recognition of Finger Motions for Myoelectric Prosthetic Hand via Surface EMG

Self-Landmarking for Robotics Applications

Robotic Waveguide by Free Space Optics

Surface Reconstruction of Defective Point Clouds Based on Dual Off-Set Gradient Functions

Part 3 Other Applications and Theory

Advanced NOx Sensors for Mechatronic Applications

Transdisciplinary Approach of the Mechatronics in the Knowledge Based Society

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Contents:

Action of Steam Engines; Principle, work diagrams, and equations

Ratings and General proportions of Steam Engines

Steam Engine Details

Steam Engine Economy

Types of Steam Engines

Steam Engine Testing

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Basically, this book collects the results of research from a multidisciplinary science researchers such as electrical engineering, chemical engineering, and mechanical engineering. Of the results of these studies are combined together so that a basic guide for the industry, academics and policy makers. All the results of research and the research is summarized and sorted by a logical and systematic sequence of easy to follow. Sequence starting from the development and history of electric vehicles, followed by explanation and illustration of a complete electric vehicle technology with the benefits and constraints. Then proceed with the art technology and a viable alternative to electric vehicle components.

List of Contents :

1. A Survey on Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicle Technology
2. Electric Vehicles in an Urban Context:  Environmental Benefits and Techno-Economic Barriers
3. Plug-in Electric Vehicles a Century Later – Historical lessons on what is different, what is not?
4. What is the Role of Electric Vehicles in a Low Carbon Transport in China?
5. Plug-in Hybrid Vehicles
6. Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicles,
7. Supercapacitors as a Power Source in Electrical Vehicles
8. Integration of Electric Vehicles in the Electric Utility Systems
9. Communication with and for Electric Vehicles
10. Applications of SR Drive Systems on Electric Vehicles
11. LiFePO4 Cathode Material
12. An Integrated Electric Vehicle Curriculum

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1. Important technical parameters such as time, bandwidth, number of relays, etc., tend to linearly with the logarithm of the number of ways. For example, adding a relay to the group of countries, twice the number of relays. Doubling time of approximately the square of the number of possible messages, or doubles the logarithm, etc.
2. It’s closer to our intuitive feeling for the right size. We feel, for example, that two punched cards should double the capacity of storing information, and two identical channels twice the capacity of information to be transferred to.

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